Cooking

Cooking is the process of preparing food by applying heat, selecting, measuring and combining of ingredients in an ordered procedure for producing safe and edible food. The process encompasses a vast range of methods, tools and combinations of ingredients to alter the flavor or digestibility of food. Factors affecting the final outcome include the variability of ingredients, ambient conditions, tools, and the skill of the individual doing the actual cooking.

The diversity of cooking worldwide is a reflection of the myriad nutritional, aesthetic, agricultural, economic, cultural, social and religious considerations that impact upon it.

Applying heat to a food usually, though not always, chemically transforms it, thus changing its flavor, texture, consistency, appearance, and nutritional properties. Other methods of cooking that involve the boiling of liquid in a receptacle have been practiced at least since the 10th millennium BC, with the introduction of pottery.

Effects of cooking

Cooking prevents many foodborne illnesses that would otherwise occur if the raw food was eaten. Also, cooking increases the digestibility of many foods, especially meat.

Nutrients

Proteins

Edible animal material, including muscle, offal, milk and egg white, contains substantial amounts of protein. Almost all vegetable matter (in particular legumes and seeds) also includes proteins, although generally in smaller amounts, by weight. (When considered as a proportion of total calories, plant foods often contain a greater proportion of protein than animal foods. Broccoli, for example, contains a higher proportion of protein than ground beef.)

These foods may also be a source of essential amino acids. When proteins are heated they become de-natured and change texture. In many cases, this causes the structure of the material to become softer or more friable - meat becomes cooked. In some cases, proteins can form more rigid structures, such as the coagulation of albumen in egg whites. The formation of a relatively rigid but flexible matrix from egg white provides an important component of much cake cookery, and also underpins many desserts based on meringue.

Liquids

Cooking often involves water which is frequently present as other liquids, both added in order to immerse the substances being cooked (typically water, stock or wine), and released from the foods themselves. Liquids are so important to cooking that the name of the cooking method used may be based on how the liquid is combined with the food, as in steaming, simmering, boiling, braising and blanching. Heating liquid in an open container results in rapidly increased evaporation, which concentrates the remaining flavor and ingredients - this is a critical component of both stewing and sauce making.

Fat

Fats and oils come from both animal and plant sources. In cooking, fats provide tastes and textures. When used as the principal cooking medium (rather than water), they also allow the cook access to a wide range of cooking temperatures. Common oil-cooking techniques include sauteing, stir-frying, and deep-frying. Commonly used fats and oils include butter; olive oil; vegetable oils such as sunflower oil, corn oil, and safflower oil; animal fats such as lard, schmaltz, and beef fat (both dripping and tallow); and seed oils such as rapeseed oil (Canola or mustard oil), sesame oil, soybean oil, and peanut oil. The inclusion of fats tends to add flavour to cooked food, even though the taste of the oil on its own is often unpleasant. This fact has encouraged the popularity of high fat foods, many of which are classified as junk food.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates include simple sugars such as glucose (from table sugar) and fructose (from fruit), and starches from sources such as cereal flour, rice, arrowroot, potato. The interaction of heat and carbohydrate is complex.

Long-chain sugars such as starch tend to break down into more simple sugars when cooked, while simple sugars can form syrups. If sugars are heated so that all water of crystallisation is driven off, then caramelisation starts, with the sugar undergoing thermal decomposition with the formation of carbon, and other breakdown products producing caramel. Similarly, the heating of sugars and proteins elicits the Maillard reaction, a basic flavor-enhancing technique.

An emulsion of starch with fat or water can, when gently heated, provide thickening to the dish being cooked. In European cooking, a mixture of butter and flour called a roux is used to thicken liquids to make stews or sauces. In Asian cooking, a similar effect is obtained from a mixture of rice or corn starch and water. These techniques rely on the properties of starches to create simpler mucilaginous saccharides during cooking, which causes the familiar thickening of sauces. This thickening will break down, however, under additional heat.

Cooking methods

Food safety

If heat is used in the preparation of food, this can kill or inactivate potentially harmful organisms including bacteria and viruses. The effect will depend on temperature, cooking time, and technique used. The temperature range from 41°F to 135°F (5°C to 57°C) is the "food danger zone." Between these temperatures bacteria can grow rapidly. Under optimal conditions, E. coli, for example, can double in number every twenty minutes. The food may not appear any different or spoiled but can be harmful to anyone who eats it. Meat, poultry, dairy products, and other prepared food must be kept outside of the "food danger zone" to remain safe to eat. Refrigeration and freezing do not kill bacteria, but only slow their growth. When cooling hot food, it shouldn't be left on the side or in a blast chiller (an appliance used to quickly cool food) for more than 90 minutes.

Cutting boards are a potential breeding ground for bacteria, and can be quite hazardous unless safety precautions are taken. Plastic cutting boards are less porous than wood and have conventionally been assumed to be far less likely to harbor bacteria. This has been debated, and some research have shown wooden boards are far better. Washing and sanitizing cutting boards is highly recommended, especially after use with raw meat, poultry, or seafood. Hot water and soap followed by a rinse with an antibacterial cleaner (dilute bleach is common in a mixture of 1 tablespoon per gallon of water, as at that dilution it is considered food safe, though some professionals choose not to use this method because they believe it could taint some foods), or a trip through a dishwasher with a "sanitize" cycle, are effective methods for reducing the risk of illness due to contaminated cooking implements.

Potential harmful health effects

Researchers at the University of Toronto and another published in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute suggest that ingesting uncooked or unpasteurized dairy products (see also Raw milk) may reduce the risk of colon cancer. Mice and rats fed uncooked sucrose, casein, and beef tallow had one-third to one-fifth the incidence of microadenomas as the mice and rats fed the same ingredients cooked.

Several studies published since 1990 indicate that cooking muscle meat creates heterocyclic amines (HCAs), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at the National Cancer Institute found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done. While eating muscle meat raw may be the only way to avoid HCAs fully, the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below 212 °F (100 °C) creates "negligible amounts" of HCAs. Also, microwaving meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90%. Nitrosamines, present in processed and cooked foods, have also been noted as being carcinogenic, being linked to colon cancer.

Also, toxic compounds called PAHs, or Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, present in processed, smoked and cooked foods, are known to be carcinogenic. German research in 2003 showed significant benefits in reducing breast cancer risk when large amounts of raw vegetable matter are included in the diet. The authors attribute some of this effect to heat-labile phytonutrients.

Heating sugars with proteins or fats can produce Advanced glycation end products ("glycotoxins").

Science of cooking

Culinary triangle

The application of scientific knowledge to cooking and gastronomy has become known as molecular gastronomy. This is a subdiscipline of food science. Important contributions have been made by scientists, chefs and authors such as Herve This (chemist), Nicholas Kurti (physicist), Peter Barham (physicist), Harold McGee (author), Shirley Corriher (biochemist, author), Heston Blumenthal (chef), Ferran Adria (chef), Robert Wolke (chemist, author) and Pierre Gagnaire (chef).

History of cooking

There is, as yet, no clear evidence as to when cooking was invented. Richard Wrangham argues that cooking was invented as far back as 1.8 million to 2.3 million years ago. Other researchers believe that cooking was invented as late as 40,000 or 10,000 years ago. Evidence of fire is inconclusive as wildfires started by lightning-strikes are still common in East Africa and other wild areas, and it is difficult to determine as to when fire was used for cooking, as opposed to just for warmth or keeping predators away. While many anthropologists place the advent of cooking at around 250,000 years ago, anthropologists besides Wrangham suggest that cooking did indeed occur much earlier, evidenced by archeological findings at Zhoukoudian in China, at Chesnowanja, Swartkrans and Koobi Fora in Africa, the latter of which has been dated by the "potassium-argon method to approximately 1.6 million years ago".

Storing Cheese

Store cheese in your refrigerator, which approximates the
temperature of aging rooms. Keep it wrapped tightly in plastic,
away from air. Air helps mold grow on cheese. If you get a little
mold on the outside, just cut it off. The English say if mold
won't eat your cheddar it can't taste very good.
Bring cheese to room temperature before melting. Melt cheese
over a low heat to help prevent toughening and separation of
oils and liquids.
Most ripened or aged cheese is low in moisture content and
can be frozen without drastic flavor and texture changes. Thaw
slowly in the refrigerator for 24 hours or more. If frozen for
several months, the cheese may dry out somewhat and become
crumbly when thawed.

Tricks for using Skewers:
Soak wooden skewers in water for 30 minutes before using
them so they won't burn during cooking.

If you prefer metal skewers, which have a long life, use
square or twisted types, which will hold the food better
than round ones.

To keep food from slipping off during cooking and turning,
use two parallel skewers rather than a single skewer.

If you're using a wooden skewer, as you thread the food
move the pieces close together, with no space showing.
If the skewer is metal, you can leave small spaces between
the pieces.

When using foods with different cooking times (such as shrimp
and beef), don't combine them on the same skewer. Instead,
make skewers of just shrimp or just beef, start cooking the
beef first, and then combine them on a serving platter.

How to use Chopsticks:
Place the first chopstick so that thicker part rests at the
base of your thumb and the thinner part rests on the lower side
of your middle fingertip. Bring your thumb forward so that it
traps the stick firmly in place. At least two or three inches
of chopstick should extend beyond your fingertip. Relax.
Now position the other chopstick so that it is held against
the side of your index finger by the end of your thumb.
Tap the ends of both sticks on the plate, while holding them
at a slight angle to the table. Allow them to slide just a
little so that the ends line up. Place a little pressure on
the top chopstick. It will pivot on your index finger just
above the second knuckle. Remember: the bottom chopstick is
stationary. The tip of the top chopstick will move towards
the tip of the bottom chopstick.Encourage this. Hold those
tips together firmly enough to grasp a piece of food and
lift it off the plate. Place delicately into your waiting
mouth. Although there's no need to stoop, you may wish to
lean over your plate a bit during your first attempts.
It might save you a clean-up!

About Honey:
To substitute honey for sugar in recipes, start by substituting
up to half of the sugar called for. With a little experimentation,
honey can replace all the sugar in some recipes.

When baking with honey, remember the following:
Reduce any liquid called for by 1/4 cup for each cup of honey used.
Add l/2 teaspoon baking soda for each cup of honey used.
Reduce oven temperature by 25 F to prevent over-browning.

Because of its high fructose content, honey has a higher
sweetening power than sugar. This means you can use less honey
than sugar to achieve the desired sweetness.

When measuring honey, coat the measuring cup with non-stick
cooking spray or vegetable oil before adding the honey.
The honey will slide right out.

To retain honey's wonderfully luxuriant texture, always store
it at room temperature; never in the refrigerator. If your honey
becomes cloudy, don't worry. It's just crystallization, a natural
process. Place your honey jar in warm water until the crystals
disappear. If you're in a hurry, place it in a microwave-safe
container and heat it in the microwave on HIGH for 2-3 minutes,
stirring every 30 seconds. Remember, never boil or scorch honey.

About Saffron:
Saffron is the dried, bright red stigmas of the flower Crocus
sativus, which is a relatively easy-to-grow perennial. It lies
dormant all summer, then pushes its purple blossoms up through
the mulch just as other plants are succumbing to frost. Each
blossom offers up to three scarlet stigmas. Plant the bulbs in
summer and harvest the stigmas in fall. A starter supply of about
50 bulbs costs about $30 and will produce about a tablespoon of
the spice the first year. However, each year more flowers will
grow, and therefore you'll get more of the spice. Ultimately,
your investment will pay off. Fresh saffron threads can be used
immediately for cooking, or they can be dried and stored. To dry
them, place on paper towels and leave for several days in a warm
place. Then transfer them to an airtight container and keep in
a cool, dry place.

Left Over Halloween Pumpkins

Scoop out seeds and strands if using a new pumpkin.
Stand pumpkin upright and cut down the middle. Halves should
be able to fit on a baking sheet. Place one half pumpkin, or two
if they fit, cut side down on the baking sheet. You may sprinkle
a little water on the sheet first. Bake at 350F for 30-60 minutes,
depending on the size. When done, the skin darkens and the pumpkin
begins to collapse. Check for softness with a fork or knife. It
will go in easily if done. Remove from oven, cool about 20 minutes.
Scoop pumpkin flesh away from skin. Discard skin then puree in food
processor.

Toasted Pumpkin Seeds

1 1/2 cups pumpkin seeds
2 tsp. melted butter or oil (olive oil or vegetable oil work well)
salt to taste
Options To Taste:
garlic powder
cayenne pepper
seasoning salt
Cajun seasoning blend

Preheat oven to 300F. While it's fine to leave some strings and
pulp on your seeds (it adds flavor), clean off any major chunks.
Toss pumpkin seeds in a bowl with the melted butter or oil and
seasonings of your choice. Purist will want only salt as a
seasoning, but, if you're feeling adventurous, experiment and have
fun with seasoning blends. Spread pumpkin seeds in a single layer
on baking sheet and bake for about 45 minutes, until golden brown,
stirring occasionally.

Clarified Butter:
For clarified butter, slowly melt unsalted butter over low heat.
Don't let the butter come to a boil, and don't stir it. This
allows the milk solids to separate from the liquid butter.
Once the butter has separated into three layers--foamy milk
solids on top, clarified butter in the middle, and milk solids on
the bottom--turn off the heat. Skim the foamy white solids from the
top. Then ladle off the clarified butter. Be careful not to disturb
the milk solids at the bottom of the pan.
Clarified butter can be used immediately. Or, let it solidify and
keep it in the refrigerator for up to three to four weeks.
Just remelt to use. One pound of unsalted butter yields 1-1/4 cups
clarified butter.

About Shallots:
The Latin name for shallot is Allium Ascalonicum. The name refers to
Ascalon , an ancient Palestinian city where the shallot is thought to
have originated.
The flavor is a pungent blend of onion and garlic. Their color can vary
from pale brown to rose, and the flesh is off-white and barely tinged
with green or purple.
Shallots burn easily because of their high sugar content. For this
reason, saute briefly over low to medium heat. When using raw minced
shallots in salad dressings, lessen their pungency by reducing the
juice; wrap the minced shallots in a clean kitchen towel and squeeze
the shallots so the cloth absorbs some of their juices, then add the
shallots to the recipe as directed.
Shallots will keep for approximately six months if stored in a
cool, dry location.

Cooking a Turkey

* If you hate the memory of dry turkey from the old days, buy a
fresh-killed (meaning, never frozen) turkey. They truly are juicier,
tenderer, and tastier than frozen birds.

* Turkeys range in weight from the 6- to 8-pound category to as
large as 26 pounds. Very small and super-big are not better.
Small ones get blotchy. Big ones present food safety problems
because their mass resists total heat penetration. Best to go
with a basic 12- to 16-pound turkey.

* Trussing: The point of tying string around a turkey is to make
the bird into a round -- no protrusions, no wings sticking out.
This prevents burning of exposed areas. Twist the wing tips, which
will burn first, under themselves, using some force. Now run a strand
of string under the turkey's girth and up each side, catching the
wing tips under the string. Continue the string over to the drumsticks,
catching them and the fatty tail flap (Pope's Nose), and tie tightly.

* Turkey lifter: This major help comes in two styles. One resembles
an L-shaped metal prong. The prong goes right up the turkey's cavity
while a handle remains in your hand. All you do it lift. If you've
stuffed the turkey, get the type that looks like snow chains, lies
under the bird, and acts like a sling. Either device ends burned
hands, greasy potholders and lost drumsticks.

* Instant-read thermometer: This is your most important tool. With
this, you don't need a roasting chart or a clock. Read the facts on
the dial. There will be no question about the internal temperature
of your meat. If you don't have one, get one!

Herbs and Spices

Storage Tips:
Store spices in a cool, dark place. Humidity, light and heat will cause
herbs and spices to lose their flavor more quickly. Although the most
convenient place for your spice rack may be above your stove, moving
your spices to a different location may keep them fresh longer.

As a general rule, herbs and ground spices will retain their best flavors
for a year. Whole spices may last for 3 to 5 years. Proper storage should
result in longer freshness times.

When possible, grind whole spices in a grinder or mortar & pestle just
prior to using. Toasting whole spices in a dry skillet over medium heat
before grinding will bring out even more flavor. Be careful not to burn.

Because the refrigerator is a rather humid environment, storing herbs
and spices there is not recommended. To keep larger quantities of spices
fresh, store them in the freezer in tightly sealed containers.

Usage Tips:
Use a light hand when seasoning with spices and herbs. Your goal is to
compliment your dish without crowding out the flavor of the food.
Remember, it's usually impossible to "un-spice" a dish!

For long-cooking dishes, add herbs and spices an hour or less before
serving. Cooking spices for too long may result in overly strong flavors.

Finely crush dried herbs before adding to your dish after measuring.

Do not use dried herbs in the same quantity as fresh. In most cases,
use 1/3 the amount in dried as is called for fresh.

Keep it simple. Unless the recipe specifically calls for it, don't use
more than 3 herbs and spices in any one dish. The exception to this rule
is Indian cooking, which often calls for 10 or more different spices in
one curry dish!

Black pepper, garlic powder, salt and cayenne pepper are excellent
"after cooking" seasonings. Allow guests to season dishes with these
spices at the table.

Cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves and allspice have a special affinity for
sweet dishes.

If you're feeling adventuresome, try replacing herbs and spices called
for in recipes with something different! Marjoram instead of oregano,
savory instead of thyme, cilantro instead of parsley,
anise seed instead of fennel, etc.

Shucking Oysters

Oysters are available seasonally. The old rule for shellfish
generally holds that any month (in the English language)
containing the letter R is a good month for shellfish.
(Note: this rule only works for the Northern hemisphere.)
These are the colder winter months, and shellfish prefer
cold water. More importantly, warmer waters mean an increase
in bacteria levels, and the shellfish can be dangerous to eat.

Shop for a good oyster knife at a good kitchen supply store
or at your local fish market. The features to look for are
a thick, solid handle made of sturdy wood or plastic, a
finger-guard (essential), and a short, thick blade. Strength
and durability will be more important than sharpness or size.

Fresh oysters should be closed tight, and kept either in fresh
sea water or on a bed of ice. Never select shellfish that are open!
Store oysters on ice until ready to serve. Cover them with a wet
towel or keep them in a closed container. An ice chest works well.

Look for the hinge of the shell. It should look like an exposed
seam which wraps around a smooth corner. Insert the oyster knife
into the seam, with the blade parallel to the seam. Use the point
to do this, gently but firmly rocking the knife back and forth.
Once the knife has been inserted, you can twist the blade to open
the hinge a little more. Repeat this process, gradually inserting
the oyster knife until you have cut the hinge completely.

Now slide the oyster knife along the inside edge between the shell
and the meat. As you work at this step, try to keep the oyster level
so that the liquid inside doesn't spill out. Some oyster eaters
consider this liquid, or liquor, to be the finest part of the
oyster-eating experience. There's one muscle, which looks like a
thick cord, that holds the shell tightly together. Use the knife
to cut this cord at the point where it adheres to the shell. This
can be done in a sort of scraping motion with the knife angled
against the shell.

Once the cord has been cut, the two halves of the shell should
fall neatly apart. Discard the empty half-shell and place the
full one on the serving platter.

Formal Table Setting

Generally, the more formal the occasion, the more courses are served,
which of course means more flatware. There should be a different set of
utensils for each course: salad fork, dinner fork; dinner knife,
bread knife; and so on.
Some special dishes such as oysters have special utensils. These can
be served at the presentation of the food, but generally are placed
on the table in order of course. When oysters are served as an appetizer
for example, set the oyster fork to the right of the spoon.

Building from the basic set-up (dinner fork on the left of the plate;
knife to the right of the plate, dinner spoon to the right of the knife):

On the left side of the plate put the salad fork to the left of the
dinner fork. On the right add a soup spoon to the outside of the dinner
spoon if soup will be served. Place the soup bowl above the soup spoon
and to the right. The bread plate goes to the left, about two inches
above the fork. Place the butter knife across the bread plate at a
diagonal, upper left to lower right. Small salad plates go to the
left and a little below the bread plate. Dessert spoons, or in some
cases knife and fork, are placed about an inch above the top of the
plate with the handle(s) on the right side.

The largest glass on the table is the water glass which goes on the
right side above the dinner knife. It may be filled and iced when
guests arrive or left empty to be filled at each diner's request.
If wine or some other beverage is served, set the appropriate glass
to the right and a little down from the water glass.

Low Fat Cooking

* Get into the habit of measuring the oil you use while you cook,
rather than just pouring it out of the bottle. It will be much
easier to moderate the amount you use.

* Use non-stick cookware so that you don't have to use as much,
if any, fat. When sauteing, use a small amount of chicken broth
or wine instead of butter or oil.

* To make fat-free broth, chill your meat or chicken broth. The
fat will rise to the top, and you can remove it before using
the broth.

* Many vegetables and fruits, including potatoes and apples,
retain many of their nutrients in their skin. So when possible,
leave the skin on your fruits and vegetables and cook them whole.

* Romaine lettuce is loaded with vitamins compared to iceberg.
It has three times as much Vitamin C and six times as much
Vitamin A.

* Vitamin C is destroyed quickly in cooking - so cook your
vegetables with Vitamin C in the smallest amount of water
possible and for a short amount of time.

* Stock up on spices. One of the keys to cooking low-fat and not
getting bored is to spice your food well. When you have finished
your recipe, always taste it and adjust the spices to meet your taste.

* Purchase the best (i.e. heaviest) set of non-stick cookware you
can afford.

* When cooking a dish with both vegetables and meat (i.e. in stir frys
and stews), reduce the amount of meat by 1/3 and increase the amount
of vegetables by 1/3. You will hardly notice!

* Thicken gravies with milk or broth blended in the blender with
flour. Be sure to cook long enough to remove the raw flour taste.
You'll never notice the lack of fat.

* Use olive oil for cooking when appropriate. It adds to the taste
of the dish and is better for you.

Problems with Breads

PROBLEM: What is the best way to bake brown and serve rolls?

First, brush their tops with melted butter or margarine. Bake at the
recommended temperature (on their package), but be careful of dark
coated baking sheets. Dark coated baking sheets may cause the bottoms
to burn before they are done. Bake brown and serve rolls at a high
temperature to insure a crispy, flavorful crust.

PROBLEM: Breads that are always too hard and heavy.

Breads made from scratch or from a mix must have an internal
temperature of about 80 degrees for the yeast to work properly. Cold
dough will not expand properly. Make sure the bread rises in a warm
draft free environment.

PROBLEM: Bread that rises too fast in the pan.

Use cool or cold water in the mix. The place you let the bread rise
in bulk should be about 80 degrees. Place the dough in the refrigerator
for a few minutes to cool down (while the dough is still in bulk form).

PROBLEM: French bread that has a pale crust.

Spray or paint the loaves with water (before cutting). Use an egg
wash to make the crust really brown up. French bread must have a high
temperature to bake properly. Check your oven to make sure the
temperature is correct. Add a little sugar to the mix.

PROBLEM: Tough pizza crust.

Most of the time a pizza crust dough should be wet and sticky (use
a little extra water). Toss in plenty of spices. Oil your pan with
olive oil. Try baking the crust first, then add any topping and bake
only to melt the cheese. Try dipping your fingers in olive oil when
you flatten the crust in the pan. Use plenty of olive oil and the
crust will be flavorful and crispy.

PROBLEM: Bread loaves and rolls that are heavy and soggy in the middle.

When everything else has been done right, maybe the unit weight is
too heavy. Try making the pieces smaller and let them rise longer.

PROBLEM: Bread loaves that cave in on their sides when removed from
the pan.

Always remove bread from the pan as soon as taken from the oven. The
crust sweats and may fall. Make sure that you use Bread Flour in the
mix. Weak flour will cause loaves to fall. Make sure the loaves are
done. Thump the top and if the loaf sounds hollow, it is done.
Setting (just baked) loaves in a cool draft of air will sometimes
cause their sides to cave in. When the dough is allowed to rise too
much before baking the loaves will sometimes collapse.

PROBLEM: Soft crusty breads.

The secret to good crusty breads is to use very little (if any) fats,
egg yolks, milks or sugar in the mix. Always serve crusty breads as
soon as they are baked for the best flavor and appearance. Use only
Bread Flour and make sure the dough is on the stiff side rather
than soft and sticky. However, some crusty breads are very sticky
(excess water). These breads are made by using an extra warm dough
and baking quickly at a high temperature.

Fruit Pies

* Save the drained juice from frozen or canned fruit and use
fruit juice instead of water in your recipe. This is only a good
idea if the juice does not have a lot of sugar in it.

* Add fresh butter to your fruit pie filling after it has been
cooked. Or dot pieces of butter over the fruit before you place
on the top crust.

* Don't cut apples pieces too thin when you are using fresh
apples. Larger chunks will hold together and have more apple flavor.

* Use a little red food color and a drop or two of almond extract
in your cherry pies when you use fresh or canned cherries.

* Use a little yellow food color and a teaspoon of lemon juice in
your apricot and peach fruit pies. The lemon juice will enhance
their flavor and also help keep a bright color.

* Mix a few raisins with fresh chopped apples and make a easy,
new apple pie.

* Do not over-cook pie fillings, especially those with corn starch
used as the thickener. The filling will break down and quickly become
watery. Over cooking fillings made with flour will cause the filling
to be thick.

Icings

* Use the icing as soon as it is made. All icing sets up quickly
and either forms a crust or becomes very stiff.

* Buy a icing spatula to apply icing. A good icing spatula will
enable you to work faster and the results will look great.

* Thin buttercream icing with evaporated milk or warm water. Use
only a little liquid and use a icing spatula to mix in.

* Thin cold chocolate buttercream icing with a little hot water
or hot coffee. Use only a small amount and mix in with a icing spatula.

* Always sprinkle toppings on while the icing is fresh, wet and
sticky. When the icing is too dry for topping to stick, thin it
with a little water or milk.

* Store buttercream icing in an air tight container in the refrigerator.
Fresh is best, so don't make buttercream icing in advance if possible.

* Always let the buttercream warm to room temperature before thinning
it down for use.

Chocolate Chip Cookies

* Always add the chocolate morsels last to the mix. It's best
when they are very cold. Just barely stir the morsels in --
don't over mix.

* Cream the shortening and sugar well. All the rest of the
ingredients can be just mixed in, but proper creaming of the
shortening and sugar is important.

* Make sure that your baking pans are cool between cookie batches.

* Substitute cherry flavored morsels for 1/2 of the chocolate
morsels for a new taste treat.

* Drop your cookies extra thick (use an ice cream scoop), flatten
the top a little, then place the cookie sheet in the refrigerator
for twenty minutes. Take the sheet from the refrigerator and bake
at 375 degrees until the cookie's edges are slightly brown and you
will have a soft centered delight.

* Warm cookies always taste better than cold ones. Heat releases
the flavor of chocolate and nut-meats. Try warming cookies in your
microwave oven for a few seconds or in a 300 degree oven for
about 5 minutes.